Chapter 2: Persuasion and Effective Communication

Contents:

2.1

Introductory Note

We live in a world of persuasion.  It is useless nowadays getting people to do what we want them to. Various tactics are being used by persuaders to change the attitudes of receivers. Seeing what works, in what circumstances, with what kinds of people, will be useful as you prepare to become a persuader.

This part will include:

1-     Definition of persuasion.

2-     Process of persuasion.

3-     Attitudes, its formation, and the component approach to the study of attitude change which makes use of the communication model.

4-     The persuasive communication model.

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2.2

Persuasion

2.2 Persuasion

The act of persuasion is as old as man.  In Ancient Greece, persuasion was the main means of achieving power and winning in the courts.

Aristotle was the first to study persuasion in depth.  He linked communication with persuasion.  He identified communication as all available means to reach persuasion. Aristotle focused on three ways to reach persuasion:

1-     The use of evidence in rational discussion.

2-     The use of personal characteristics.

3-     The use of emotions.

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2.3

Definition of Persuasion

2.3 Definition of Persuasion

There are many definitions of persuasion. Some emphasized on internal motive of the audience more than using logic.  Birembeck and Howell said “Persuasion is the conscious attempt to modify thought and action by manipulating the motives of men towards predetermined ends”.

Fotheringham affirmed “Persuasion is that body of effects in receivers that has been caused by persuader’s message".

Scheidel began more nearer to the type of persuasion we are familiar to, he defined persuasion as: "The activity in which the speaker and the listener are conjoined and in which the speaker consciously attempts to influence the behavior of the listener by transmitting audible and visible symbolic."

Central to this definition is the notions of conscious internet, message transmission and behavioral change.

It also includes sender and receiver which make the components of definition resembling the components of communication.

Persuasion, from this point of view, depends upon two main aspects:

1-     Communication.

2-     Intending planning of persuader to affect audience.

Depending on previous clarification, we can define persuasion as: “The intended use of communication to form a desired response from receivers to their social environment”.

Elements of Persuasion

2.3.1 Elements of Persuasion

 We can underline five elements of persuasion:

1-     The invention or discovery of evidence and argument, and their

2-     Organization,

3-     Artistic stylizing,

4-     Memorization, and

5-     Skillful delivery.

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2.4

Process of Persuasion

Models

2.4 Process of Persuasion 

2.4.1 Models of The Persuasive Process

The foregoing theories of the way in which communication content influences individual conduct, have led numerous attempts to capitalize on these conceptualizations for the purpose of deliberately manipulating human behavior by communicated messages.

In attempting to describe the nature of these formulations, two things will be made clear:

1-           These models of the persuasive process are the extension and utilization of the contemporary theories of communication.

2-           These models are roughly formulated.  There are a number of other models of the persuasion process that could be formulated instead.

The first of these two conceptualizations is called the psychodynamic model of the persuasion process. The essence of the idea is that an effective persuasive message is said to be one which has properties capable of altering the psychological functioning of the individual in such a way, that he will respond overly with modes of behavior, recommended by the communicator.  It has been assumed that effective persuasion is the change of the internal psychological structure of the individual, so that the psychodynamic relationship between the latent internal process and manifest overt behavior, will lead to acts, intended by the source of the communication.

Extensive use has been made of persuasive messages aimed at individual attitudes, under the assumption that there is a close relationship between a person’s attitudinal structure and his behavior in social situations, see Figure 2.1.

In simple graphic terms, the psychodynamic model of the persuasive process would be as follow :Figure 2.1.

The psychodynamic model rests upon an extensive theoretical as well as an empirical base. Important theories of motivation, perception, learning and even psychoanalysis have suggested ways in which, attitudes, fears, self-conceptions, reinforcement, and many other variables, are related to persuasion.

The psychodynamic model of the persuasion process are attempts to use the theory for practical purposes, this mode has by no means been the only one, that has been tried.  A somewhat more complicated alternative stems from a combination of the social relationship perspective and the cultural norm theory.  For the lack of a better term, we will refer to this as the sociocultural model of the persuasion process.

Social and cultural variables have been widely recognized by communication researchers and other social scientists, as playing an important part in determining the way, in which people adopt new ideas and things.  However, sociocultural variables have been used as a basis for appeals in persuasive communication.

The sociocultural variables from which the individual derives interpretation of reality as well as being significant forms of social control are important sources determining the direction of the individual’s attitude.

Asch & Sheriff show how the influence of norms plays a powerful role in guiding, defining and modifying the behavior of the individual, somewhat independently of the state of his internal predisposition. Sociological studies have supported this generalization. The work of Lohman and Reilzes, Merton, Kit, Mead, De Fleur and Westic, Minared and Newcomb, indicate the way in which such variable as organizational membership, work roles, reference groups, cultural norms, and primary group norms can play a part in channeling overt action, in ways that are, to some extent uninfluenced by internal psychological predispositions. It must be recognized, however, that the behavioral patterns of the individual can not be interpreted on the basis of psychological predispositions. It must be recognized, however, that the behavioral patterns of the individual can not be interpreted on the basis of psychological factors only, especially when the individual is acting within special social setting.  Reference must be made to the variables that surround the action, in order to predict, explain and manipulate such a behavior effectively.

The sociocultural factors existing in an individual setting are important determiners of the direction the individual’s behavior that will take. This behavior can be contrary to that intended since he may find certain social and cultural constraints, which will make him compelled to conform under condition.  This situation would cause the individual a social and psychological conflict in following the behavior prescribed by the communicator. Represented schematically, such a model of the persuasive process is Figure 2.2.

These two concepts suggest that the persuasive messages presented via the mass media may provide the appearance of consensus with respect to a given object, or goal of persuasion.

The communicator can also show how the non-adopter is a deviant and a non-conformist. He may also show simultaneously, the way in which social rewards, group integration, and social approval, are bestowed upon the individual for obeying the communicator’s goal.

There are undoubtedly numerous ways in which persuasion process could be conceptualized. The psychodynamic and the sociocultural strategies, however, seem to be rather clear links to the attitudes and their formation.

2.5

Definition of Attitude

2.5 Definition of Attitude

The concept of “attitude” has been variously defined by social scientists so that there has been a good deal of ambiguity regarding the concept. But, perhaps, the most acceptable is that of Rokeach:

“An attitude is a relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an object or situation predisposing one to respond in some preferential manner."

This definition of attitude specifies at least five factors or meets five conditions:

1. An attitude is relatively enduring over time: The concept of attitude is reserved for enduring persistent organizations of predispositions round a central belief.  Attitudes are formed by past experiences and are learned responses to particular objects, things or processes.

2. An Attitude is an organization of beliefs: It represents a cluster or syndrome of two or more interrelated beliefs. A belief is any simple proposition, conscious or unconscious inferred from what a person says or does.  Each belief has three components: a cognitive component (person’s knowledge), an affective, component (capable of, leads to some action when suitably activated).

3. An attitude is organized bound an object or a situation: An attitude object may be concrete or abstract while an attitude situation is a dynamic event around which a person organizes a set of interrelated beliefs about how to behave.

4. An attitude is a set of interrelated predisposition to respond: A response may be either a verbal expression or a non-verbal behavior, an attitude is an “agenda for action” that is, it specifies the response a person will make to a given object within a given situation.

5. An attitude leads to a preferential response: An attitude predisposes one to respond in a preferential manner to individuals or groups who agree with or oppose us with respect to that particular attitude.

Many persons tend to use the terms attitude and opinion interchangeably as if there were no distinction between them.  Opinion is the overt expression (verbal or non-verbal) of an attitude which is only internal to the individual.  Thus when we measure opinions, we only infer that they refer to an internal attitude of the individual.

2.6

Formation of Attitude

2.6 Formation of Attitude 

One of the most important matters to be discussed is how attitudes are formed.  More than ever before it is now necessary to know why people hold the views they do.  In other words, how their attitudes have been formed?  First, let us consider how attitudes arise and where do their origins lie. One can trace three sources:

1-       In the child rearing experience of the first five or six years of life from the parent-child relationship.

2-       By association between individuals or the formal and informal groups met with in later life.

3-       From unique and isolated experiences or similar experiences repeated throughout life.

But those three sources must be considered within the framework of society and its culture or way of life to which the individual belongs.  In the earlier years a parent tries to plant this culture into the child and this process is known as mediated social-cultural influence. Later on, the process becomes self-incubated and this is known as direct social-cultural influence.

2.7

Functions of Attitudes

2.7 Functions of Attitudes 

This is a point that has been subject to a great deal of arguments, and consequently contradictions. One of the main questions asked is this “does an attitude possess drive-producing properties or do motives come from sources other than the attitude itself?" To answer this question one must develop a more comprehensive formulation of the functions of an attitude.  A certain line of thinkers, Lasswell, Formm, Maslow and others believe that attitudes serve mainly irrational, ego-defensive functions.  Another group of thinkers, students of culture and sociology went further to say that attitudes have an adjustive function, meaning by this the adjustment of primitive and modern man to their specific cultures and subcultures.  This gives attitudes positive functions which were formulated by Katz as follows:

1-        The instrumental adjustive function involves such values as security, achievement, competence, success and loyalty in group.  It is served when people strive to maximize the rewards and to minimize the penalties of their external environment.

2-        The ego-defensive function: in which a person protects himself from acknowledging the basic truth about himself or the harsh realities in his external world.  It may be reflected in positive values as, honor, chivalry, racial purity or the extensive condemnation of such negative values as lust, intemperance.

3-        The value expressive function: in which the individual derives satisfactions from expressing attitudes appropriate to his personal values and his concept of himself. This function is central to doctrines of ego psychology which stress the importance of self-expression, self-development and self-realization.

4-        The knowledge function: based upon the individual’s need to give adequate structure to his universe.  It refers to a person’s central values concerning truth, understanding and the search of meaning, also serving self-expression, self-development and self-realization.

Determinant of Attitude Formation, Arousal and Change in Relation to Type of Function

2.7.1 Determinants of Attitude Formation, Arousal and Change in Relation to Type of Function

2.8

Measuring Attitudes

2.8 Measuring Attitudes 

Attitude measurement is a process whereby one assesses an individual’s response to a set of social objects of situations. This is done by observing a sample of behavior from an attitude universe.  Each behavioral element in the attitude universe in the response to a particular situation or object that evokes the response together with a specified set of response categories is called an item. The set of behavior comprising an attitude is called an attitude universe. There are several methods available for measuring attitudes among them.

1. Judgment methods: There are two major aspects of this method. Firstly, each item is scaled to give its degree of favorableness towards the issue. Secondly, the respondents must be scored on the basis of their responses to the items.

2. The method of summated ratings: Techniques similar to techniques used in the mental-testing field. In this method, five categories of responses are provided for each item: strongly disapprove, with scores 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, respectively.  An individual’s scale score is the sum of his scores on the items.

3. Scalogram analysis: In 1944 Guttmann proposed a nonmetric method for scaling monotone attitude items.  In a Guttmann scale, the items have a special cumulative property. For example, a person who responds positively to the third item on the scale is almost sure to have responded positively to the first and second items.

2.8.1 Conclusion 

Attitudes can be formed toward “objects” and “situations”, and in many cases the two are not compatible which creates the problem of correspondence.

Persuaders are always trying to appeal to attitudes that we hold or values that we have. Though not clearly linked to behavioral change, attitudes and opinions are important to persuaders. Whether attitudes affect behavior or not, persuaders think that they do and build their messages accordingly.

2.9

Persuasive Communication

2.9 Persuasive Communication

The question that rises here is: "how can we effectively communicate and reach persuasion?"

We can identify persuasive communication as “The communication process where the communicator uses his tactics to affect a group of target audience attitudes and their behavior."

1 The Persuasive Communication Model

A. Factors related to the source

2.9.1 The Persuasive Communication Model

Carrel Hovland and his colleagues were the first to make a persuasive communication model.  This model depends upon three sets of factors in order to reach the intended attitudes and behavior.  These factors are:

1. Factors Related to The Communication Process

These factors include the three main key factors in the communication process which are:

A. Factors related to the source: They include:

Source specialization

Source credibility

Source status

Audience love to the source

The source plays the key role in the persuasive communication process.  He can easily transfer his ideas when he is specialized in the topic he is talking about.  David Berlo said that the communication skills such as talking, writing, reading, listening, thinking and level of knowledge are variables behind the success of communication process.

Source Credibility

Source Credibility

Is the experience and trustworthiness that receivers give to the source. Many communication researches demonstrated that an individual response to new ideas and information depended, at least in part on “who said it": social scientists, point out the characteristics of a message source enhance his communication effectiveness. Though Hovland & others calculated that source credibility whether high or low do not affect the amount of information transferred to the audience, yet the high credible source is more effective in changing attitudes than low credibility sources.

Other factors such as the sources demographic characteristics and to what extent do they match the audience, also the audience love to the source affect the process.  This why sometimes, actors are chosen for certain persuasive messages.

B. Factors related to the message: Hovland pointed out some factors that must be included in the message in order to be effective.  He focused on factors such as; the way ideas, evidence are arranged, the organization of the arguments used in support of the position advocated. In addition to the meaning contained there in, the organization of the message may vary along many dimensions.

Also the message can present the favorable arguments that the source is advocating or it can recognize the opposing positions as well. If both sides are presented, it has to be decided which argument should precede the other, should a conclusion be presented or should it be left to the receivers to draw their own conclusion, what kind of appeals should be used. Such questions have generated interesting studies on the role of the message component in changing attitudes. The answers will be discussed in detail in the chapter dealing with written communication.

This category includes those personality characteristics of people, who are most resistant to all forms of persuasion, as well as those who are moderately responsive and those who are highly persuasible.

Factors Related to Cognitive and Psychological Reaction

2. Factors Related to Cognitive and Psychological Reaction

These set of factors indicates the status of reaction and feedback either in the inner perception or an overt behavior.  It is the middle stage that leads to types of effect including attention, understanding and persuasion.

3. Factors Related to Effect on The Receiver

These factors are the goal of the persuasive communication.  It is what we call the K.A.P. scale where we know to what extent did we affected our audience.  Did we reach the “K” goal; “K” refers to knowledge.

This simply notifies that we affected the receiver’s knowledge by giving him information that might help him to form an opinion on the issue we are talking about.  The second point on the scale is forming or changing attitudes.  This is where the “A” stands. The third on the scale is the “P” that refers to practice which means succeeding in changing the receiver’s behavior and helping him to adopt our desired behavior.

The Persuasive Communication Model